Proportional and Regional Scripts
The tenth-century Abbasid vizier and calligrapher Abu ‘Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla developed a proportional writing system of calibrated letters. Basing the system on two geometric shapes – a circle with the diameter of the letter alif and the rhomboid dot created by the stroke of the nib of a reed pen (see diagram)- he canonized the six classical cursive scripts (the aqlam al-sitta): naskh, thuluth, muhaqqaq, rayhan, tawqi’, and riqa’. Each script was suited to a particular purpose. For instance, naksh was ideal for copying books and small Qur’ans while thuluth and muhaqqaq were appropriate for large Qur’ans, objects, and architectural surfaces.
Some scripts remained tied to a particular region, but others were adopted widely. For example, maghrib was exclusive to Spain and North Africa, whereas nasta’liq, an elegant and lyrical script that originated in Iran and Central Asia, spread eastward to Mughal India and westward to Ottoman Turkey.
Fragment of an Arabic Phrase in Tawqi’ Script
Signed by Mahmud, known as Jalal al-Din
Iran or India, calligraphy: early 16th century;
marbling: 17th century or later
Black ink on paper with marbled borders mounted to pasteboard
Private collection
Framed within a marbled border, this fragment features a line of prose about safe travels from the Hadith, a collection of traditions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. The tawqi’ script is notable for its unusual ligatures between letters that are not linked in other scripts, such as the alif and the ‘ayn.
Bifolium from the Andalusian “Pink Qur’an in Magribi Script
Spain, possibly Granada or Valencia, ca. 13th century
Ink, gold, silver and opaque watercolor on paper
Purchase, Friends of Islamic Art Gifts, 2017 (2017.232)
This bifolium belongs to a luxurious Qur’an named for the pinkish hue of its paper, which may have come from Jativa, reportedly the site of the first paper mill in Spain. The verses are penned in a bold maghribi script in dark brown ink with gold diacritical and vocalization marks outlined in brown, blue, and green. Pause and prostration marks take the form of disks and teardrops. The format is unusual, as most Spanish Qur’ans were square and written on parchment rather than on paper.
Folio from the Shah Jahan Album with a Poem in Nasta’liq Script
Folio with verses in Nasta’liq Script
Calligrapher: Sultan ‘Ali Mashhadi (active late 15th -early 16thcentury)
India, Mughal, recto: late 16th century; verso: ca. 1500
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
Purchase, Rogers Fund and The Kevorkian Foundation Gift, 1955 (55.121.10.32)
Calligrapher: Mir ‘Imad al-Hasani (1552-1615)
Iran, dated A.H. 1017/A.D. 1608-9
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
The verses on these two folios are written in diagonal lines of nasta’liq script. Noted for its refined and lyrical quality, nasta’liq is ideally suited for love poetry replete with mystical allusions and Sufi metaphors.
Plaque with Inscription in Nasta’liq Script
Iran, 17th century
Steel; cut
Purchase, Louis E. and Theresa S. Seley Purchase Fund for Islamic Art, Elizabeth S. Ettinghausen Gift, in memory of Richard Etinnghausen, funds from various donors, Josephine L. Berger-Nadler and Ehsan Yarshater Gifts, 2011 (2011.410)
This pierced steel plaque contains an inscription in fluid nasta’liq script against a background of vegetal scrolls, which praises the Prophet his daughter Fatima, and the Twelve Shi’i Imams (the Chahardah Ma’sum, or Fourteen Infallibles). The openwork casts a delicate shadow as light filters through its perforations. Similar plaques were placed on entryway doors surrounding the cenotaphs of holy personages in Shi’i shrines in Iran.
Qur’anic Verse in Revival Naskh
Calligrapher: Muhammad Shafi’, known as Visal-i Shirazi (1779-1846)
Iran, early-mid -19th century
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
Gift of Charles K. Wilkinson, 1979 (1979.518.6)
Revival, or Persian, naskh is noted for its large proportions, clear vocalization marks, and readable, well-formed letters. Here, eight diagonal lines of verse are written in a variety of colored inks including cream, yellow, pink, and blue illuminated against a black background. The multidirectional composition requires rotating the page in order to read the text.
Carpet with Pseudo -Kufic Inscriptions
Turkey, probably 17th century
Wool (warp, weft, and pile); symmetrically knotted pile
The James F. Ballard Collection, Gift of James F. Ballard, 1922 (22.100.123)
This prayer rug highlights the protective function of pseudo-inscriptions. It bears a perfectly legible inscription at its borders but relies on well-placed pseudo-kufic writing at the foot. To protect the sacred texts from being stepped on and violated, the designer rendered them illegible. Pseudo-kufic is also present in several European paintings of the tenth to the sixteenth century, appearing on the halo crowning the Virgin Mary (see Below) or on carpets and other furnishings. These inscriptions were thought to imbue paintings with a degree of luxury and refinement.
Michelino da Besozzo (Mischelino de Mulinari) (Italian, active 1388-1450), The Marriage of the Virgin (detail), ca. 1430. Tempera and gold on wood, Maitland F. Griggs, 1943 (43.98.7)
Edict (Firman)of Muhammad Shah Qajar in Shikasta- Nasta’liq Script
Letter in Ta’liq (Hanging) Script
Letter in Shikasta (Broken) Script
Iran, dated A.H. 1250/A.D. 1835
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
Gift of Layla S. Diba, in memory of Mahmood T. Diba 2013 (2013.243)
Calligrapher: Darvish’ Abdullah Munshi (active early 16th century
Iran, A.H. 911/A.D. 1505-6
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
Calligrapher: ‘Abd al- Majid Taliqani (1737-1771)
Iran, dated A.H. 1176/A.D. 1763
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
Rogers Fund,1946 (46.126.4)
Calligraphy Practice Page (Siyah Mashq) by a Ruler
Calligrapher: Muhammad Shah Qajar (r. 1834-48)
Iran, dated Shawwal A.H. 1260/A.D. October 1844
Ink, gold, and opaque watercolor on paper
Ink, gold, and opaque watercolor on paper
Calligraphy Practice Page (Siyah Mashq) by a Court Calligrapher
Calligrapher: Asadullah Shirazi (active 1830s-50s)
Iran, dated A.H. 1258/A.D. 1842-43
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper
Purchase, Friends of Islamic Art Gifts, 2016 (2016.536)
Originally, practice pages were intended to strengthen a calligrapher’s hand and instill discipline through the repetition of letters or groups of letters. They emerged as a popular art form after the sixteenth century in a fascinating manifestation of calligraphic abstraction. Generally devoid of meaning, mashq pages are merits. Many were set into borders, placed into albums, and exchanged as gifts. The two examples here, one by a ruler and the other by his court calligrapher, epitomize the creative spirit of this genre.